In Socioculturally Defined Boundaries：On Joking RelationshipsLiu Xiaohong
In discussing the social significance of joking relationships Keith H。Basso alludes to a Western Apache analogy which likens the development of solidarity in interpersonal relationships to the process by which“deerhides”are softened into pieces of fine“buckskin”（Basso，1979）。A。R。Radcliffe Brown defines a joking relationship as“a relation between two persons in which one is by custom permitted and in some instances required to tease or make fun of the other，who in turn is required to take no offence”（Brown，1965）。Research by some other scholars also shows the structural functional importance of joking relationships。Brett O’Bannon views the“joking relationship”as a powerful cultural institution that binds families，clans or even whole ethnic groups into ties of imagined kinship（O’Bannon，2005）。Highlighting the social and political function of joking relationships Lamin Sabally said they are“treasured national pride”and a cherished national symbol that concretize the very social fabric of our societies（Sabally，2008）。In the same structure functionalist perspective，this paper emphasizes how joking relationships as a dynamic social process tell much about the cultures and societies in which they exist。It argues that what is intended in joking relationships can only be best achieved within socioculturally defined boundaries。To go beyond is dangerous and even disastrous。
A joking relationship is defined and permitted by custom。In some societies it is one of permitted disrespect。What makes a joking act possible and successful for its intended result is a joking frame the joker successfully creates and then persuades the“butt”，in Basso’s word，to play along。Brown’s research shows that in many societies it is regarded as preferable that a man should marry the daughter of his mother’s brother。This custom，known as cross cousin marriage，is accompanied by a joking relationship between the man and the children of his mother’s brother，who are thus the man’s potential in laws and wives。It is a custom in that society that when these cross cousins meet they must try to embarrass each other。
They“joke”with one another，making the most vulgar allegations with no one taking any offence。Cross cousins who do not joke this way are considered boorish，as not playing the social game。When two people from West Africa’s Ndiaye and Diop families meet，they are also required to“dis”each other。They insult each other’s family heritage and eating habits：“The important thing is that they are not only required to engage in these insulting exchanges，but they are equally obligated not take offense”（O’Bannon，2005）。Including elements of obscenity though，this kind of joking is only verbal and the joking relationship underlying the joking act is symmetrical as each of the cross cousins teases or makes fun of the other。By the“wedding night play”custom in China，friends of the newlyweds draw all their wits to tease and make fun of the newlyweds，who，made to do what would otherwise be unacceptably embarrassing and even humiliating，can take no offence at all。Here the joking relationship is totally asymmetrical。The newlyweds，however，go right into the joking frame and play along。If they don’t，or they their friends don’t joke this way，the marriage may be seen as ominous。
People don’t joke with each other when their relation is“stiff”as“deerhides”。They joke to soften“deerhides”into pieces of fine“buckskin”。Le Ly Hayslip，the well known Vietnamese American woman writer joked with her audience as she started her speech in the lecture hall at Whitman College：“I’m 38，not young enough but still available（recorded by the author of this paper）。”The audience laughed loud，feeling perhaps a satisfying sense of identification with someone who otherwise would have never been so close and real to them。Joking is thus a means of working on softening relationships and consequently a means of establishing solidarity and shortening social distance between people。More significantly，people joke to fulfill their social roles defined by society。When the cross cousins crack vulgar jokes，they are playing the social games set forth by the cross cousin marriage system。
The friends of the newly weds make fun of the newly weds to make them less shy on their wedding night。When two old Chinese friends meet and joke over their creeping old age with one saying：“Oh，you are still alive？I thought you had been disposed”and the other one laughing back：“Oh，you know，I’ve been waiting for you”（recorded by the author of this paper），the joke functions to chase away the joker's inner fear of death by projecting it into the butt。When a grandchild and his grandfather joke about wishing to marry each other’s wife（recorded by Radcliff Brown），the jokes convey special meanings for both the grandchild who，in joking，pretends that he wishes to marry his grandfather’s wife，and the grandfather who then pretends that the wife of his grandchild is，or might be，his wife。For the grandfather，this kind of joke must give him an irresistible pleasure of being rejuvenated while，for the grandchild，it works to satisfy his wish to grow up and enter into the world of full maturity。
Joking relationships tell much of the cultures and societies they exist in。Radcliffe Brown proposed structural functional approach to social analysis of some strange customs whereby certain individuals（often in laws）are expected to engage in formalized banter。He proposed that one could only understand such strange customs by studying the specific joking relationship in the context of the total pattering of social relations in the society（Brown，1940）。
Cultural differences between societies create varieties in social relations and social life in general。In China where there is extreme respect between a man and his parents in law，a man standing in a joking relationship with the friends of his wife is rarely in a joking terms with his parents in law。A man and his wife reciprocally call each other’s parents“Dad and Mom”the day they become married by law。Embodying total and unconditioned respect，this address form assigns a sense of filial duty and obedience to the man and his wife who use it rather than a joke relationship which can put the couple and their parents in law on an equal basis。The man is not even on a joking relationship with his older sisters in laws since he is required by custom to call them“sisters”instead of addressing them by name：there is studied respect between him and his older sisters law in using this address form。In Australia the complete avoidance of any social contact between a man and his mother in law（recorded by Radcliffe Brown）makes a joking relationship of any kind absolutely out of place even though his mother in law is“the greatest friends he has since she has provided him with a wife”（Brown，1965）。
In the U。S，however，it is common for a man and his father in law who call each other by name to joke like friends。Their joking relationship embodies a sense of intimacy and equality distinctively American。Some Americans，even as kids，call their parents by their first name and they say“I love you”to their parents almost as a ritual，either as a way of ending a phone conversation or departing，which would be a thing extremely difficult and even embarrassing for Chinese children to do。The way the little boy in the American movie“Sleepless in Seattle”brings up the topic of sex in his conversation with his father and asks questions about it may seem blasphemous in Chinese culture。Parent children relationship in China is becoming“softer”but not to the extend that they can joke like friends as some Americans do。While the intimate close relationship between Chinese parents and children is reinforced more by filial obligations and parental love and care，the solidarity between American parents and children becomes strengthened by their joking relationships。When an American girl tells her mom about her new boyfriend who is tall，gentle and handsome，instead of asking more about him to show how she cares about her daughter as a Chinese mom would probably do，the mother can joke about it：“How could you hide him from me when I’m still attractive（recorded by the author of this paper）？”The joking relationship between father and son depicted in the American movie“Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade”can be very foreign to Chinese society。
Joking，as Keith H。Basso puts it，“is a form of play”（Basso，1979）and jokes，not meant to be serious，therefore，should be taken playfully。Funny and humorous，jokes serve to entertain and delight。Chinese cross talk shows feature on the joking relationship between the two actors at each other’s expense to make them funny and entertaining。Disneyland and Universal Studios Hollywood thrive on the joking relationships their performing and entertaining personnel can instantly strike up with their visitors through live shows，guided tours and thrilling rides。The change of a cultural environment in which the jokes exist may change the playful limits of jokes and consequently their entertaining nature。The reproduction of Disneyland in and around the world，perhaps，is a good example。While Disneyland in US is a fantastic wonderland its replica in Japan is much less entertaining。What is entertaining in one culture can even be humiliating in another。The following episode is very typical of a joking relationship between the performing actors and the audience at Universal Studios Hollywood（recorded by the author of this paper）。Its existence may be unimaginable elsewhere。
“You guys have had fun？”the live show actor asked the audience，who responded：“Yeah！”“Go home！”the actor shouted。In a stunned moment，he went on：“After this wonderful live show。Uh……uh……uh……”The audience cheered，totally rejoiced in the overwhelming Hollywood atmosphere。“Anyone wants to offer a camera？”the actor shouted，inviting the butt to play along in the joking frame he created。A little girl ran to him and handed him her camera。“Ah，a cheap camera for cheap pictures！”the actor put the camera in between his legs and then shot a picture at this ass：“It sure will be a great picture！”Gleaming at the girl from his mask，he lowered his voice and said，“Be sure to have it printed！”Laughing，he handed the camera back to the little girl。The crowd became exuberated……
Taken seriously or literally this kind of jokes will cease being jokes。Instead of being funny，they may become dangerous as the Apaches claim them to be。For however amusing jokes may be，they are always amusing at someone’s expense。Unless jokers are careful to keep their slurs and criticism within playful limits，their actions may be interpreted as veiled expressions of genuine hostility。Jokes badly played can easily tear down an established joking relationship。In extreme cases，they can even result in violence and death。Years ago it was reported that in one village in rural China a bride jumped into a river and drowned herself upon hearing her wedding night bridal room conversation aired over the village。What had happened was that on their wedding night after the“wedding night play”their friends hid a microphone in their bridal room，recorded the whole conversation and played it loud for all the villagers to hear and make fun of。
Within culturally defined boundaries joking relationships have the potentials of resolving conflicts and creating peace。In demonstrating how fictive relationships can bring an end to quite serious conflicts O’Bannon documented on his presentation at an international conference on jokes and policy in Africa an instance in which a rebel group in southern Senegal actually released a carload of hostages because the driver successfully pleaded for their lives in the name of the Serer Diola joking relationship（O’Bannon）。To form and maintain balanced and dignified joking relationships in a dynamic social process is to enhance social stability and progress。
References：
[1]Basso，Keith H。。Portraits of the white men by the Western Apache Linguistic Play and Cultural Symbols among the Western Apache。Cambridge：Cambridge University Press，1979.
[2]Brown，A。R。Radcliff。Structure and Function in Primitive Society。New York：Free Press，1965.
[3]O’Bannon，Brett。“Joking Relationship Can End Serious Conflicts”Paper presented at an international colloquium entitled“The Cousin and Policy：Alliances with Jokes and Policy in Africa”，Paris，France October，2005：27-28.
[4]Sabally，Lamin。“Joking Relationships are Our Treasured National Pride”，2008.
[5]http：//www。allgambian。net/NewsDetails。aspx id=306-41k（accessed June 7，2008）。
[6]Brown，A。R。Radcliff。“The Andaman Islanders”，1922.http：//www。britannica。com/eb/topic-23492/（accessed May 16，2008）。
[7]Brown，A。R。Radcliff。“On Joking Relationship”Journal of the International African Institute，Vol。13，No。3（Jul。，1940），pp。195 210.doi：10.1207/1156093.Cultural Analysis of Chinese and
American Views on CharityLiu Xiaoyuan
“Meat and wine rot in the vermilion gates，corpses and bones freeze out on the streets。”These verses from a poem by Tang Dynastic poet Du Fu，describe the social injustice and the extreme disparity between the rich and poor of that period（around the 8th century）。The Gini Index is the indicator for measuring these characteristics of contemporary society。According to Chinese official reports，the Chinese Gini Index has already arrived at the 0.45%threshold，which means the richest 10%of the population owns close to half of the nation’s total assets while the poorest 10%has but 1.4%。Such a sharp gap is leading to a polarization of consumption and consequently social instability，which will have a direct impact on economic growth because only a few people have discretionary income to spend。In turn，this undermines the great objective realization of constructing a harmonious and sustainable socialist society。How to solve this problem becomes an urgent imperative。
It is generally held that the first distribution of public wealth is achieved through the market in the form of income，the second through government adjustment，and the third through individual contribution of disposable income motivated by habit and religious ethicsHoly Bible（New Testament），（Scarborough：Christian Communication Inc。of Canada，2005），p。248.。Here the third distribution of wealth comes to be served by charity。However，the fact remains that Chinese charity is far behind not only the developed countries，but even some of the developing countries，which involves factors such as delays in law and policy making，public misconceptions and attitudes towards giving。
This paper is attempting to focus on the conceptual aspect and make a comparative study between Chinese and American ways of thinking concerning charity，because the Chinese charitable culture and social environment are still at the starting point in contrast with America’s highly developed charitable undertakings which are cooperating in a parallel with its economy towards a positive cycle of a harmonious and sustainable society。Hopefully it will be able to contribute to the betterment of the current backward state of China’s charity where the wealth gap is growing dangerously larger。
1.Manifestations of Sino American Conceptions of Charity
1.1In China，charitable organizations are developing on a small scale although the number increases rapidly。There are about 100 at present，most of which are affiliated with the government and working at low efficiency。In contrast，America has 1，400，000 non profit charitable organizations。European countries，like Germany，the United Kingdom and Switzerland，have more than 10，000 foundations respectively。
1.2The charitable funds raised each year account for a very small percentage of China’s GDP due to the poor fundraising techniques and lack of trust in China。According to the statistics，these 100 or so organizations have altogether 0.1%worth of GDP。Among them，the China Charity Federation and China Legal Aid Foundation are the most influential and capable in fund raising，but even their funds raised annually are no more than 80 million Chinese Yuan。In contrast，America’s charitable organizations hold 8%～9%of America’s GDP。
1.3The charitable concept has not been popularly accepted by Chinese people so far。Since the founding of the P。R。China，social welfare has been brought under the control of the planned economy so that charity has not got a chance to assume a role and consequently the general public has not cultivated the awareness of actively participating in charity。Investigation shows the majority of the public，including the wealthy，did not make any active donations。They expect the government to continue to assume responsibility for social welfare and poverty alleviation programs。
1.4One more interesting point is the totally different rhetorical definitions of charity found in some of the authoritative Chinese and English encyclopedias。For example，according to Encyclopedia Chinese，charitable cause refers to a social cause which engages in helping the weak with money or articles and provides them with some other practical aid from compassion，pity or religious belief。With a heavy religious and superstitious implication，it aims for doing good and receiving good recompense。Usually donators regard charitable causes as a kind of almsgiving，which serves only as a temporal and negative aid to a small proportion of people。Controversy remains about its social effects引自http：//www。sina。com。cn。《南方周末》2005年10月6日。。In Americana Encyclopedia，philanthropy is“one of the most enduring societal traditions，and the effort to promote human welfare through donations of money or service。”Kathleen D。McCarthy，The Encyclopedia Americana，International Edition（Danbury：Grolier Incorporated，1998），p。874.
However，it is one thing to say that the charitable concept has not been established in China；it is quite another thing to say that Chinese people are not a helpful，caring or loving people。And the fact is that Chinese people are very considerate of their compatriots。
According to historical data，Chinese charitable history traces back to as early as the Spring and Autumn Period（770-476 BC）and Warring States（475-221 BC）when The Book of Rites put forward the idea of Great Harmony，which means that because people are sincere in their words and deeds and live in peace and harmony，men do not love only their relatives；nor do they treat as children only their own sons and daughters；the aged should be supported till their death；the able bodied should be given chances to demonstrate their abilities；the young should be cared for and tended to，and the widowed，the orphaned，the childless and the disabled all secure provisions王昌坤译：《礼记》，齐鲁书社2006年版，第21～22页。。Mencius，one of the greatest thinkers after Confucius，also suggested that people help each other like neighbors do so as to live harmoniously。It is thus clear that Chinese charitable ideas emerged at an early time，taking a different form though，and they demanded that people should not only care for their own families and relatives but also love all others in the society，so that all the weak，including widowers，widows，orphans，childless couples and the disabled could be cared for and looked after。During the Tang Dynasty（618-907 AD），charitable causes supported by monasteries developed rapidly。In the Song Dynasty（960-1279 AD），nongovernmental charity was brought under government control so that governmental charitable organizations were set up。At the same time，nongovernmental charitable propagation and private charitable activities prospered。
Then why does contemporary charity in China develop so slowly and lag far behind？Before making any exploration on the causes，it’s necessary to distinguish three important terms first：charity，philanthropy and benevolence。According to on line Wikipedia，“although giving to those nearly connected to oneself is sometimes called charity，normally charity denotes giving to those not related……The need of a large financial commitment creates a distinction between philanthropy and charitable giving。Charitable giving typically plays a supporting role in a charitable organization initiated by someone else。Thus，the conventional usage of philanthropy applies mainly to wealthy persons，and sometimes to a trust created by a wealthy person with a particular cause or objective targeted。”……“Many non wealthy persons have dedicated thus，donated substantial portions of their time，effort and wealth to charitable causes。These people are not typically described as philanthropists because individual effort alone is seldom recognized as instigating significant change。”http：//www。wikipedia。com。This encyclopedia gives the term benevolence two definitions：1.charitable kindness；2.altruistic gift or actIbid。。Here I’d like to claim that when I’m arguing China has a long charitable history，I mean it more benevolently。Chinese people have never been mean in helping and caring about others or the poor by spending time，or donating materials like food and clothes，which is what is implied in Confucianism’s benevolence。
2.Cultural Reasons for the Existence of Sino-American Different Conceptions on Charity
2.1Benevolence and Charity
2.1.1The core of Confucianism is“benevolence”，which as a concept extends immediately from the blood relationship within the family。Therefore，familial love is the most immediate and primary love for a human being。Anybody，after being born，finds the most immediate people are his family members and therefore naturally cherishes a deep love for his relatives。One of Confucius’disciples You Ruo took filial piety to parents and revering elder brothers as the essence of benevolence：“And surely proper behavior towards parents and elder brothers is the trunk of Good ness”。Arthur Waley译：《论语》，外语教学与研究出版社2005年版，第3页。
Later on，the Confucian School accepted“loving your relatives and respecting the elderly”as the fundamental meaning of benevolence，according to which one person can extend his love to others only when he loves his own family members first。Adam Smith raises exactly this point in his Theory of Moral Sentiment。Benevolent love is first of all deeply rooted in familial blood relations and then extends to others as“extending your respect for your aged parents to all the aged，and extending your love for your own children to all children”蔡希勤编著，何祚康、郁苓英译：《孟子格言录》，华语教学出版社2003年版，第250页。。Therefore，Chinese traditional charitable culture originates from the family as a basic unit，maintaining that benevolent love moves from“educating his family，to ruling his state，to governing the world well”。Within the traditional ethical framework of Chinese people，the familial relationship is the most immediate。Since“the core of benevolence is to be filial to one’s parents”蔡希勤编著，何祚康、郁苓英译：《孟子格言录》，华语教学出版社2003年版，第222页。most Chinese people without exception leave or prefer to leave their property to their descendants。Thus，Confucian benevolent love is layered from family to relatives to friends and ultimately to society。
2.1.2Compared with the Chinese concept of charity，America has a long history with religious brotherly love as its essence，which goes through the whole Bible。Jesus summarizes the Jewish law when he says，“Love your neighbor as yourself。”Holy Bible（New Testament），（Scarborough：Christian Communication Inc。of Canada，2005），p。44.This attitude colors all Christian thinking。This charitable conception originated from its religious doctrine of“brotherly love”。Christianity holds that we human beings are born sinful，which is contrary to Confucian doctrine that“man’s nature is good at birth”。This sin implicates later generations and becomes the origin of human suffering，but Christians are redeemed by believing in Jesus and empowered to love in a new way because they are confident Jesus loves them。Thus，Christian benevolence teaches Christians to abandon the seeking for external materialistic world and to care more about the internal spiritual one，to be specific，“to love others as much as you love yourself。”In contrast with Confucius layered structure of benevolent love，Christian love is a brotherly universal love on the basis of equality。Only when universal love is aspired to，can unselfishness，service and even sacrifice be available to promote charitable spirit among the general public。Therefore，charity in the name of universal fraternity，being essentially a special personality derived from the belief in God and Jesus，is taken by Christianity as the means of getting closer to God by behaving like Jesus。
2.2State and Community
2.2.1The Influence of the Concept of the Benevolent Rule of State
Benevolent government stood in the way of nongovernmental charitable development in Chinese history。In accordance with the traditional political ideology，government was supposed to be the main and even the only provider for social welfare。Once when intending to help the poor with his own property，Confucius’disciple Zi Lu was stopped by Confucius explaining that relieving the poor with individual property implied the immorality and incapability of the government，and would be a great shame to one who was always claiming to be benevolent and meanwhile keen on face saving。Recuperative centers in the Tang Dynasty，set up to help the poor and the ill by Buddhism temples and later abolished by the authority，had much to do with the above mentioned idea of the rule of state，which directly brought then embryonic charitable consciousness to an end。This thought of the rule of state got intensified by the highly centralized state power in the mid 20th century，and its fierce criticism and attack against humanitarianism buried the nongovernmental charity as well as the feudal system completely。The consequence is that whenever Chinese people are in trouble，the government is the first place they would like to turn to。This stereotype has blocked the formation of charitable consciousness in Chinese people’s minds。
2.2.2Mutually Helping Culture
Americans’active participation in charitable causes also lies in its long history of a mutual helping culture。It is well known that under British colonial rule，Americans did not have any social security。The government had not been empowered with the imposition of tax and therefore couldn’t provide the citizens with any social welfare before the Federal Constitution was passed。Consequently the public was forced to get associated and help each other。Therefore，in America，mutually helping activities have been common and often organized in the name of community which，in contrast，is a pretty new concept to Chinese people。Benjamin Franklin，one of America’s earliest philanthropists，contributed his large property to helping better the community he was living in and founded local citizen organizations such as a Volunteer Fire Brigade and other public facilities。America’s philanthropic tradition thus started to prosper。This is why America has got a“small government and big society”image。
2.3Wealth
2.3.1The Concept of Wealth
America’s“being rich is sinful”culture which is totally different from what Chinese people generally refer to ever as“hating the richness”culture，originates from the Christian concept of“rich man’s original sin”。Early Christianity blamed，resented and even denied entirely secular wealth，people’s material desires，rich men and their business conduct。It was generally held that businessman who bought and sold at low prices were committing crimes severer than stealing，and commerce and trade fostered people’s avariciousness for a secular world so as to abandon God seeking。Consequently in early Christian societies，Christians ought never to work as businessmen。Christians were discouraged from lending money at interest。Thus，Jews who had no such limitation became the first bankers in the Middle Ages。Christians are expected to help each other and take care of the poor，widows and orphans。Steel magnate Andrew Carnegie，one of the great founders of American nongovernmental philanthropic companies，published in 1889 an article entitled“The Gospel of Wealth”，which is regarded as the masterpiece of modern American philanthropic causes，and from which we can see how deeply the doctrine of rich men’s original sin is rooted in Americans’minds。In his article he wrote，“It was held that public sentiment would soon say of one who died possessed of available wealth which he was free to administer：‘The man who dies thus rich dies disgraced’。”Andrew Carnegie，The Gospel of Wealth（Cambridge Mass。：Belknap Press of Harvard University Press，1962），p。30.
Another founder，petroleum big shot John Davison Rockefeller，having sincerely believed in Christianity since childhood，declared his aversion to wealth many times and lived what Christianity upholds as a very plain life。What’s more，he contributed the vast majority of his property before passing away。It is generally agreed that it is the doctrine that“the rich is innately sinful”that keeps reminding these Christian wealthy people of contributing their money。
Another important factor which helped the emergence of modern American charitable culture is Protestant ideas，according to which rich men serve more as the social manager of wealth than its owner。That is，legally speaking，wealth is privately owned，but the part exceeding what is needed for making a living belongs to society in terms of ethnics and value。Carnegie in his“The Gospel of Wealth”made this idea very clear。To him，the wisdom to find ways of contributing extra wealth，to make it benefit society is as important as that needed for making money。The objective of making profit is supposed not only to satisfy one’s material demand but also to help out those in poor situations by contribution。Rich people in their life time should make a good arrangement for their wealth so that it can maximally benefit the public。This Protestant doctrine manifested itself in the 19th century American literary works such as Catharine Sedgwick’s The Poor Rich Man and Eliza Follen’s Sketches of Married Life。The wealthy families in these novels tried to“unite the economic and the domestic……through a project that is centered on the welfare of others”，and“prospered，in part，through improving the lives of the poor and，in turn，reinvest their profits in a continuous cycle of benevolence”Jill Bergman and Debra Bernardi，Our Sisters’Keepers（Tuscaloosa：The University of Alabama Press，2005），p。95.。This model of public and private immersion turned out to be the embryonic form of American modern philanthropic company。
2.3.2Social Status of Businessmen
2.3.2.1Mainstay of American Businessmen
Under the influence of the Christian“sinful richness culture”，American rich men’s philanthropic donation has a long history。The term businessman originated from the USA in the 1830s。These businessmen comprised unique creators and leaders of American public associations。They had an intense interest in public beneficial undertakings。Many American universities，hospitals，museums，concert halls and railroads were sponsored or established by these businessmen。Their ideal belief is the prosperous cooperation between the public and individual。The future of the public associations means their own future，so in the USA businessmen are always addressed as“social sponsors”。Such a tradition is inherited and passed down to later generations of businessmen who expand it further。Bill Gates，who has more than40 billion，has donated more than half so far。His explanation for his warmhearted philanthropy turns out to have come from the teaching of his parents。
2.3.2.2Discrimination against Chinese Businessmen
The ruling class adopted the policy of highly valuing agriculture while belittling business in Chinese feudalist society so that the small scale agricultural production lagged too far behind to relieve the stress from the population，war and natural disasters。Those who were satisfied with their farming lives and unwilling to leave their homeland were regarded as law abiding people while commercial activities were strictly forbidden，and those engaged in them were looked down upon as idlers。Shang Yang Reform in 359 BC tried different ways to reward cultivation while devaluing business，which resulted directly in the recruitment of businessmen into armies when the emperor Qin Shi Huang went on a punitive expedition afterwards to unite six countries。Early Han Dynastic businessmen were allowed only to wear coarse clothes instead of luxurious ones as brocade and their children were deprived of the right to become government officials。What’s more，the Emperor Wudi of Han dynasty（156-87 BC）imposed much heavier tax on businessmen，causing most of these middle class businessmen to go bankrupt。It can be seen that the early commerce was belittled as the humblest job，whose significance was not given a full play，and businessmen were situated in the low class。
Commerce developed faster later on，which called attention to its significance，but the fact remained that people conducting it were still looked down upon as snobs for attending to trifles to the neglect of essentials，although as a profession it began to be valued as a necessary element of national development。
In his“Song of the Lute Player”，Tang Dynastic poet Bai Juyi when describing the singing girl’s miserable life，expressed his pity for her marriage to a businessman，because he held that businessmen cared more about interests than about affection，and that this behavior was against Confucianism’s emphasis on righteousness while neglecting benefits。This poet’s thought is typical literati opinion on the personality of businessmen in Chinese history。
After the founding of P。R。China，class struggle became the guiding principle which means capitalist class was the main enemy of the public and must be cracked down on，so this revolutionary consciousness negated capitalism represented by businessmen as a whole，holding that being rich was being merciless。Therefore，the wealthy people in Chinese history have never been provided with any chance to cultivate a strong sense of social responsibility in helping the nation solve social problems。They haven’t cultivated a sense of social identification in helping voluntarily maintain the normal operation and continuity of the whole society，which is quite different from American tradition。
2.4Value System
2.4.1Collectivism Orientation
Chinese people are collectivism orientated。Under such an influence groups like family，society and nation have got the priority，and individual interest can be neglected or even sacrificed if necessary，just as a Chinese saying goes，“To be the first to show concern and the last to enjoy oneself。”
In dealing with the relationship between individuals and groups or the environment，people get accustomed to avoiding“failing to show restraint”，because of the ideas in idioms such as“shooting the bird which takes the lead”，“one who wants to be ahead of others will get into trouble”。Individualism is looked upon as disobedience to parents，monarch and friends and an evil conduct against which strict precautions must be taken。This is partly why wealthy Chinese are unwilling to participate publicly in charitable causes。
2.4.2Individualism Orientation
American culture belongs to an individualism orientated culture，in which everybody is an autonomous and independent entity。They do not rely on anyone else，even their parents，which would be a disgrace otherwise。To Winston Churchill，what he owns does not come from inheritance but from hard work引自贾玉新著：《跨文化交际学》，上海外语教育出版社1997年版，第63页。
In terms of the relationship between individuals and groups or the environment，Americans advocate small government，big society，putting emphasis on individual priority over the government，which is embodied in two aspects as far as charity is concerned。One is the disbelief in the government。The public suspect that there is a widespread inefficiency and corruption among government officials，so they prefer to be more devoted to private charity。The other is the individual sense of responsibility。They think charitable donation is the duty of being a good citizen。
Conclusion
Evidently，compared with the advanced American charitable culture，what China is deficient in is not only material conditions，but more important some spiritual elements such as cultural and belief traditions，in addition to systematic factors like systems，laws and ideology。Traditional concepts like benevolent love，the rule of state and discrimination against businessmen have had much negative influence on the cultivation of the Chinese charitable consciousness。However，China is a nation with a long charitable history and benevolent love like a two edged sword also makes Chinese a helpful，caring or loving people，which help contemporary Chinese charitable cause towards a new beginning。Recently Charities Act has been incorporated into the legislative plannings of both NPC and the State Council。The spring of China’s charitable cause is coming soon。
References：
[1]Bergman，Jill and Debra Bernardi。Our Sisters’Keepers。Tuscaloosa：The University of Alabama Press，2005.
[2]Carnegie，Andrew。The Gospel of Wealth。Cambridge Mass。：Belknap Press of Harvard University Press，1962.
[3]McCarthy，Kathleen D。The Encyclopedia Americana，International Edition。Danbury：Grolier Incorporated，1998.
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